THE INDUS CIVILIZATION

The Indus Valley Civilization was a prehistoric civilization that thrived in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river basins, which are now in Pakistan, as well as parts of India's northwest, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan. From 3300 BC to 1700 BC, the Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, existed. The Ancient Indus River Valley Civilization was found when the Harappan city, the first city in the Indus Valley, was uncovered.

 

Discovery

The remains of Harappa were first mentioned in Charles Masson's Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and Punjab. It was produced during the years of 1826 and 1838. By accident, British engineers constructed the East Indian Railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1857, using bricks from the Harappa ruins. In 1912, J. Fleet discovered Harappan seals. Sir John Hubert Marshall launched an excavation campaign in 1921-1922 in response to this incident. Harappa was found by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni, and Madho Sarup Vats, whereas Mohenjo-Daro was discovered by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall.

 

Overview

 

1. The Indus River Valley Civilization, commonly known as the Harappan Civilization, lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE and spanned modern-day northeast Afghanistan through Pakistan and northwest India.
   
   
2. Standardized weights and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy using copper, bronze, lead, and tin were all important inventions of this civilization.
   
   
3. Less is known about the Indus script, and as a consequence, little is known about the organization's and governing systems of the Indus River Valley Civilization.
   
   
4. Climate change and migration are most likely to blame for the civilization's demise.

Language, religion, and culture

Harappan religion and language are largely unexplored. A series of written writings discovered at Harappa on clay and stone tablets, carbon dated 3300-3200 BCE, feature trident-shaped, plant-like marks that seem to be written from right to left. There is substantial disagreement over whether it was ever an encoded language and whether it is linked to the Indo-European and South Indian language groups. Without equivalent symbols, the Indus script remains indecipherable and is assumed to have arisen independently of Mesopotamian and Egyptian writing. Researchers are attempting to decrypt it using technical developments in computer science.

The Arts and Culture

Sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and figures in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been discovered at the sites of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization. Shell work, ceramics, agate, glazed steatite bead production, one-of-a-kind combs, and other crafts have also been uncovered. Seals, toys, games, and stringed musical instruments have also been discovered in the Indus Valley.

 

Transportation and commerce

 The Harappan Civilization's residents seem to have been predominantly involved in trading. The principal forms of transportation are bullock carts and boats. Archaeologists discovered a large dredging canal and port facilities in the beach city of Lothal. The culture's pottery, seals, figures, and decorations are remarkably similar to those of Central Asia and the Iranian plateau, indicating trade with them. There is also evidence of a maritime commercial network between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations.

 

Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

Academics were already familiar with the Hindu literature known as the Vedas, as well as other important works of Indian tradition such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, but they had no idea what civilization had developed them. No attributes were given to th people of India due to the systemic racism at the time, and this led researchers to believe that Harappa was a Mesopotamian Sumerian colony or maybe an Egyptian outpost.

Harappa, on the other hand, did not adhere to Egyptian or Mesopotamian architecture, since there was no trace of temples, palaces, or massive constructions, as well as no names of kings or queens, stelae, or regal statues. The city was built on 370 acres (150 hectares) of modest brick homes with clay flat roofs. There was a citadel, walls, and the streets were set out in a grid pattern, plainly displaying a high level of competence in urban planning, and when the excavators compared the two sites, it was evident that they were dealing with a highly evolved civilization.

Both towns' houses featured flush toilets, a sewage system, and fixtures on each side of the streets were part of a sophisticated drainage system that was much more complex than that of the early Romans. Wind catchers were affixed to the roofs of certain structures in Persia, providing air cooling for the residence or administrative office, and there was a large public bath at Mohenjo-Daro, encircled by a courtyard with stairs going down into it.

 

Chronology

Wheeler's study enabled archaeologists to determine approximate dates from the civilization's inception through its collapse and demise. As previously stated, the chronology is based mostly on physical evidence from Harappan sites, but also on knowledge of their trading links with Egypt and Mesopotamia. Lapis lazuli, for example, was very popular in both civilizations, and although historians knew it originated from India, they didn't know where until the Indus Valley Civilization was found. Even though this semi-precious stone was imported after the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization, it is obvious that part of the export originated from this area at first.

 

1. Pre-Harappan – about 7000 – approximately 5500 BCE: The Neolithic period is best typified by sites such as Mehrgarh, which provide evidence of agricultural development, domestication of plants and animals, and manufacturing of tools and pottery.
   
   
2. Early Harappan — c. 5500-2800 BCE: Trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and probably China is well established. Ports, docks, and warehouses constructed along waterways by tiny village settlements.
   
   
3. Mature Harappan – c. 2800 – c. 1900 BCE: Great city construction and extensive urbanization. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are thriving about 2600 BCE. Other cities, such as Ganeriwala, Lothal, and Dholavira, are created on the same principles, and the land's expansion continues with the creation of hundreds more cities until there are over 1,000 in every direction.
   
   
4. Late Harappan – c. 1900 – c. 1500 BCE: Civilization decline coincided with a wave of Aryan migration from the north, most likely the Iranian Plateau. Climate change has caused floods, drought, and hunger, according to physical evidence. A loss of commercial links with Egypt and Mesopotamia has also been proposed as a factor.
   
   
5. Post-Harappan – about 1500 – 600 BCE: The cities have been abandoned, and the inhabitants have gone south. By the time Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) invades India in 530 BCE, the civilization has already crumbled.